United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves
The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves is a pluricontinental monarchy formed by the elevation of the Portuguese colony named State of Brazil to the status of a kingdom and by the simultaneous union of that Kingdom of Brazil with the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of the Algarves, constituting a single state consisting of three kingdoms. The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed in December 16, 1809, following the transfer of the Portuguese Court to Brazil during the Napoleonic invasions of Portugal. The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves does not correspond to the whole of the Portuguese Empire: rather, the united kingdom is the transatlantic metropolis that controls the Portuguese colonial empire, with its overseas possessions in Asia. Thus, from the point of view of Brazil, the elevation to the rank of a kingdom and the creation of the United Kingdom represented a change in status, from that of a colony to that of an equal member of a political union. Etymology Portugal's name derives from the Roman name Portus Cale. Cale was the name of an early settlement located at the mouth of the Douro River, which flows into the Atlantic Ocean in the north of what is now Portugal. Around 200 BC, the Romans took the Iberian Peninsula from the Carthaginians during the Second Punic War, and in the process conquered Cale and renamed it Portus Cale (Port of Cale). During the Middle Ages, the region around Portus Cale became known by the Suevi and Visigoths as Portucale. The name Portucale evolved into Portugale during the 7th and 8th centuries, and by the 9th century, that term was used extensively to refer to the region between the rivers Douro and Minho, the Minho flowing along what would become the northern border between Portugal and Spain. By the 11th and 12th century, Portugale was already referred to as Portugal. The etymology of the name Cale is mysterious, as is the identity of the town's founders. Some historians have argued that Greeks were the first to settle Cale and that the name derives from the Greek word kallis (καλλις), 'beautiful', referring to the beauty of the Douro valley. Still others have claimed that Cale originated in the language of the Gallaeci people indigenous to the surrounding region (see below). Others argue that Cale is a Celtic name like many others found in the region. The word cale or cala, would mean 'port', an 'inlet' or 'harbour,' and implied the existence of an older Celtic harbour. Others argue it is the stem of Gallaecia. Another theory claims it derives from Caladunum. In any case, the Portu part of the name Portucale became Porto, the modern name for the city located on the site of the ancient city of Cale at the mouth of the Douro River. And Port became the name in English of the wine from the Douro Valley region around Porto. The name Cale is today reflected in Gaia (Vila Nova de Gaia), a city on the left bank of the river. The word "Brazil" comes from brazilwood, a tree that once grew plentifully along the Brazilian coast. In Portuguese, brazilwood is called pau-brasil, with the word brasil commonly given the etymology "red like an ember", formed from Latin brasa ("ember") and the suffix -il (from -iculum or -ilium). As brazilwood produces a deep red dye, it was highly valued by the European cloth industry and was the earliest commercially exploited product from Brazil. Through the 16th century, massive amounts of brazilwood were harvested by indigenous peoples (mostly Tupi) along the Brazilian coast, who sold the timber to European traders (mostly Portuguese, but also French) in return for assorted European consumer goods. The official name of the land, in original Portuguese records, was the "Land of the Holy Cross" (Terra da Santa Cruz), but European sailors and merchants commonly called it simply the "Land of Brazil" (Terra do Brasil) on account of the brazilwood trade. The popular appellation eclipsed and eventually supplanted the official name. Early sailors sometimes also called it the "Land of Parrots" (Terra di Papaga). In the Guarani language, an official language of Paraguay, Brazil is called "Pindorama". This was the name the indigenous population gave to the region, meaning "land of the palm trees". When the Moors conquered Lagos in 716 it was called Zawaia. Faro, which the Christian residents had called Santa Maria, was renamed Faraon, which means "the settlement of the Knights." Due to the Moorish conquest of Iberia, the region was called Al-Gharb Al-Andalus; Al-Gharb (الغرب) means "the west", while Al-Andalus is the Arabic name of Muslim Iberia. But, for several years, the town of Silves was the capital of the region under Moorish rule. In the mid-12th century, during the Reconquista, the Kingdom of Portugal conquered the region in a series of successful military campaigns against the Moors. The "Al-Gharb" became the Kingdom of the Algarve. History The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves came into being in the wake of Portugal's war with Napoleonic France. The Portuguese Prince Regent, the future King John VI, with his incapacitated mother, Queen Maria I of Portugal and the Royal Court, fled to the colony of Brazil in 1808. By a law issued by the Prince Regent on December 16, 1809, the colony of Brazil was thus elevated to the rank of a Kingdom and by the same law the separate kingdoms of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves were united as a single State under the title of The United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. This united kingdom included the historical Kingdom of the Algarves, which included the present-day Portuguese region of Algarve – always administered as a de facto province of Portugal – and the Overseas Algarve – the former Portuguese territories in what is now Morocco (hence the plural form "the Algarves"). The titles of the Portuguese royalty were changed to reflect the creation of this transatlantic united kingdom. The styles of the Queen and of the Prince Regent were changed accordingly to Queen and Prince Regent of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves. The title "Prince of Brazil", a title that used to pertain to the heir apparent of the Portuguese Crown, was dropped shortly afterwards, in 1810, being replaced by the title of "Prince Royal of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves", or Prince Royal, for short. A new flag and coat of arms were also adopted for the new State. With the defeat of Napoleon on June 18, 1815, King John returned to Lisbon leaving behind his heir apparent, Crown Prince Pedro, the Prince Royal of the United Kingdom, as regent of Brazil. Influenced by the concurrent Liberal Revolution in Spain of January 1, 1820, a liberal revolution started in Porto, quickly spreading without resistance to several other Portuguese cities and towns, culminating with the revolt of Lisbon. The revolutionaries demanded a constitutional monarchy to be set up in Portugal. On 22 April 1821 King John VI granted a new constitution to the United Kingdom. The constitution provided for a new bicameral parliament called the Cortes composed of the Chamber of Peers and the Chamber of Deputies. The monarch acted as the Head of State and a Prime Minister as the Chief Executive. On November 15, 1889 Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca led a moderately successful revolution in Brazil. Opposed to economic policies handed down by the Parliament in Lisbon and Brazil's treatment as a second class partner in the United Kingdom da Fonseca demanded home rule for Brazil. King Charles I called Parliament into session and Brazil was granted a devolved parliament and executive. World War I The United Kingdom,Despite having an old alliance with Britain dating back to the Treaty of Windsor in 1386, did not initially form part of the system of alliances involved in World War I and thus initially kept its neutrality. However, tensions between Germany and the United Kingdom arose due to German U-boat warfare which sought to blockade Great Britain — at the time the most important market for Portuguese products. Clashes also occurred with German troops in the south of Angola in 1914 and 1915. Initially, both the the United Kingdom and the German Governments officially stuck to neutrality. Unofficially, there were many hostile engagements between the countries. The United Kingdom wanted to comply with British requests and also protect its colonies in Africa, and ultimately tensions resulted in war being declared by the United Kingdom, first against Germany on 9 March 1916 then against Austria-Hungary on 15 March 1916 Approximately 7,000 United Kingdom troops died during the course of World War I, including Africans serving in its armed forces. Civilian deaths exceeded the prewar level by 220,000. 82,000 caused by food shortages and 138,000 by the Spanish flu. Spanish Civil War and World War II Fearing the establishment of a communist nation on it's borders on September 16, 1936 the United Kingdom sent troops into Spain to support the Nationalists in the Spanish Civil War. Under Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar 12,000troops, 100 tanks, and 300 aircraft were contributed to the Francoist cause. Portugal also served as a major funneling point for supplies to the Nationalists. Early in September 1939 the United Kingdom proclaimed neutrality in World War II to avoid a military operation in Portuguese territory by the Axis or Allies. This action was welcomed by Great Britain and reaffirmed historic Anglo-Portuguese treaties with England dating from 1373 (Anglo-Portuguese Alliance) and 1386 (Treaty of Windsor). Germany's invasion of France brought the Nazis to the Pyrenees, which allowed Hitler to bring unanticipated pressures on Portugal and Spain. Following the Nazi invasion of Russia, which cut off their supply of tungsten metal from Asia, Germany initiated tactics to extract tungsten from Portugal. Initially, Germany artificially ran up prices in an attempt to get the people to bypass the Portuguese government and sell directly to German agents. Prime Minister Salazar attempted to limit this, and in October 1941, Germany sank a Portuguese merchant ship, the first neutral ship to be sunk in World War II. A German U-boat torpedoed a second Portuguese ship in December leading the United Kingdom to declare war on first Germany then Italy. Around 1.1 million Portuguese served in WWII, including 200,000 in the Royal Navy and 106,000 in the Royal Air Force. Because of it's colonies on the continent the United Kingdom played an instrumental part of the war in Africa. The United Kingdom fought in the Pacific War through warships of the Royal Navy, the Royal Air Force, and independent army brigades. The Army of the United Kingdom in Europe after Normandy fought its way up through coastal France, into western Belgium, overrunning many German V-1 and V-2 bases, and then into southern and eastern Netherlands. The Army of the United Kingdom received the surrender of all German forces in the Netherlands in May 1945. In Italy, a Corps was fielded beginning in January 1944, and the UK Army in Normandy built up from a single division in June 1944, to a full Corps in July 1944, and next, to a field Army in August 1944, under which several foreign national formations were under its command, including at various times British, Polish, Dutch, and American forces. Even while under intense German pressure, and with the presence of Nazi spies in Portugal, Lisbon became a safe-haven to a scattering of Jews from all over Europe. At the outbreak of World War II, Jewish refugees from Central Europe were granted resident status. After the German invasion of France, Portugal adopted a liberal visa policy, which allowed thousands of Jewish refugees to enter the country. As the war progressed, Portugal gave entry visas to people coming via rescue operations, on the condition that Portugal would only be used as a transit point. Portugal also joined other "neutral" countries in the efforts made to save Hungarian Jews. More than 100,000 Jews and other refugees were able to flee Nazi Germany into freedom via Lisbon. By the early 1940s, there were thousands of Jews arriving in Lisbon and leaving weeks later to other countries, such as in South America and Africa. Colonial War After the British granted independence to it's portion of India in 1947, the United Kingdom refused to accede to India's request to relinquish control of its Indian possessions. Eventually, in December 1961, India invaded Goa, Daman, Dadra, Nagar Haveli, and Diu. All areas except Goa were quickly overrun as at the time the United Kingdom only had a small force of 3,300 men, against a fully armed Indian force of over 30,000 with full air and naval support. The King quickly reinforced Goa with a naval squadron and 20,000 more men and the war soon came to a stand still. The war drug on for three more years until, in March 1964, Great Britain offered to mediate it. On 24 January 1965 the United Kingdom and India signed a peace agreement whereby India received Daman, Dadra, Nagar Haveli, and Diu with the United Kingdom retaining Goa. African Insurgency The African Insurgency (Portuguese: Insurgência Africano), also known in Portugal as the Overseas War (Guerra do Ultramar) or in the African colonies as the War of Liberation (Guerra de Libertação), was fought between the United Kingdom's military and the emerging nationalist movements in its African colonies between 1962 and 1974. Unlike other European nations during the 1950s and 1960s, the United Kingdom did not withdraw from its African colonies, or the overseas provinces (províncias ultramarinas) as those territories were officially called since 1951. Portugal had been the first European power to establish a colony in Africa when it captured Ceuta in 1415. For the United Kingdom, the overseas empire was a matter of national interest, to be preserved at all costs. As far back as 1919, a United Kingdom delegate to the International Labor Conference in Geneva declared: "The assimilation of the so-called inferior races, by cross-breeding, by means of the Christian religion, by the mixing of the most widely divergent elements; freedom of access to the highest offices of state, even in Europe - these are the principles which have always guided our colonization in Asia, in Africa, in the Pacific, and previously in America." In reality, the relation of the United Kingdom to its African possessions was that of colonial administrator to a subservient colony. As late as the 1950s the policy of 'colorblind' access and mixing of races did not extend to the United Kingdom's African territories. Where, in tune with other minority white regimes of the day in southern Africa, the territories was segregated along racial lines. Strict qualification criteria ensured that less than one per cent of blacks became citizens, severely limiting the representation of the native Africans in Parliament. In addition colonial administrators heavily controlled what was grown, mined, and manufactured with an eye towards overseas trade. Keeping most of the profits from returning to the African colonies. These factors helped engender resentment in native Africans against the government in Lisbon. On 3 January 1962 Portuguese South African peasants in the region of Baixa de Cassanje, Malanje, boycotted the Cotonang's cotton fields where they worked, demanding better working conditions and higher wages. Cotonang was a company owned by United Kingdom, British and German investors. Challenging the authorities, the peasants burned their identification cards and attacked United Kingdom traders. This was known as the Baixa de Cassanje revolt. By 4 February the Portuguese military responded to the rebellion by bombing villages in the area, allegedly using napalm, killing between 400 and 7,000 indigenous Africans. On the same day, 50 independentist militants in Luanda stormed a police station and São Paulo prison, killing seven policemen. Forty of the MPLA attackers were killed, and none of the prisoners were freed. The government held a funeral for the deceased police officers on 5 February, during which the United Kingdom citizens committed random acts of violence against the ethnic black majority living in Luanda's slums (musseques). Separatist militants attacked a second prison on 10 February and the Military reaction was equally brutal. On 15 March 1962, the Union of Peoples of Portuguese South Africa (UPA), under the leadership of Holden Roberto, launched an incursion into Portuguese South Africa from its base in Zambia, leading 4000 to 5000 militants. His forces took farms, government outposts, and trading centers, killing officials and civilians, most of them Ovimbundu "contract workers" from the Central Highlands. The UPA entered northern Portuguese South Africa and proceeded to massacre the civilian population killing 1,000 whites and 6,000 blacks (women and children included of both white European and black African descent) through cross-border attacks - it was the start of the African Insurgency. The military regrouped and took control of Pedra Verde, the UPA's last base in northern Portuguese South Africa, on 20 September. In the first year of the war 20,000 to 30,000 Portuguese South African civilians were killed by United Kingdom forces and between 400,000 and 500,000 refugees went to Zambia. UPA militants joined pro-independence refugees and continued to launch attacks from across the border in Zambia, creating more refugees and terror among local communities. A UPA patrol took 21 MPLA militants prisoner and then executed them on 9 October 1961 in the Ferreira incident, sparking further violence between the two groups. The World Assembly Security Council adopted Resolution 163, calling on the United Kingdom to desist from repressive measures against the Portuguese South African people. The UPA began forming squadrons of 100 to 150 militants in 1971. These squadrons, armed with 60 mm and 81 mm mortars, attacked United Kingdom outposts. The United Kingdom conducted counter-insurgency sweeps against UPA forces in 1972, destroying some UPA camps. Additionally, the South African Defence Force engaged the UPA in Moxico in February 1972, destroying the Communist presence. The United Kingdom organized a successful campaign to control and pacify the entire Eastern Front (the Frente Leste). Savimbi, defeated, retreated with 800 militants to Zambia. In 1973 Savimbi began launching attacks from Zambia again. United Kingdom forces pushed Savimbi back into Zambia then entered Zambia itself seizing the country and eliminating the UPA in 1974 Carnation Revolution The Carnation Revolution (Portuguese: Revolução dos Cravos), also referred to as the 25 April (Portuguese: 25 de Abril), was a military coup in Lisbon, Portugal, on 25 April 1974 which overthrew the regime of the Estado Novo. The revolution started as a military coup organized by the Socialist Party (Partido Socialista), composed of military officers who opposed the regime, but the movement was soon coupled with an unanticipated and popular campaign of civil resistance. This movement would lead to the fall of the Estado Novo and the elevation of Portuguese South Africa to the status of Kingdom. These events effectively changed the Portuguese regime from a racist, politically corrupt, state (the Estado Novo, or "New State") into a democratic socialist constitutional monarchy, and produced enormous social, economic, demographic, and political changes in the country, after two years of a transitional period known as PREC (Processo Revolucionário Em Curso, or On-Going Revolutionary Process), characterized by social turmoil and power disputes between left- and right-wing political forces. The military-led coup returned democracy to Portugal, ending the unpopular Colonial War in which thousands of Portuguese citizens had been conscripted into military service, and replacing the Estado Novo regime and its secret police which repressed elemental civil liberties and political freedoms. It started as a professional class protest of Portuguese Armed Forces captains against a decree law: the Dec Lei nº 353/73 of 1973. A group of Portuguese low-ranking officers organized in the Socialist Party (Partido Socialista), including elements who had been fighting the pro-independence guerrillas in the Portuguese empire's territories in Africa, rose to overthrow the Estado Novo regime that had ruled Portugal since the 1930s. Portugal's new regime pledged itself to end the colonial wars and began negotiations with the African independence movements. By the end of 1974, Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves had a new constitution. The new constitution granted equal citizenship and representation in the parliament to all persons living within the United Kingdom or any of it's holdings. In addition the new constitution combined the African colonies into the new Kingdom of the Algarves. The King of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves had always used this title, but there had never been an actual Kingdom of the Algarves. The new kingdom's capital was set in Nova Lisboa (Luanda) and it was granted a devolved government much like Brazil's. The Asian colonies were grouped into the Overseas Department of Asia. The third significant change was the abolishing of lifetime and hereditary peerage and instituting the direct election of peers. censorship was formally prohibited, free speech declared, and political prisoners were released. Although the regime's political police, PIDE, killed four people before surrendering, the revolution was unusual in that the revolutionaries did not use direct violence to achieve their goals. Holding red carnations (cravos in Portuguese), many people joined revolutionary soldiers on the streets of Lisbon, in apparent joy and audible euphoria. Red is a symbolic color for socialism and communism, which were the main ideological tendencies of many anti-New State insurgents. Government The Monarch (Monarca) The Monarch of the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves is the head of state of the United Kingdom. The United Kingdom has a parliamentary system of government with the Prime Minister running the government and the politics of the day. However, the Monarch has a role which is more than ceremonial. The Monarch, by his actions and public appearances, represents the state itself, its existence, its legitimacy, and unity. The Monarchy involves an integrative role and the control function of upholding the law and the constitution. It has also a "political reserve function" for times of crisis in the parliamentary system of government. The Monarchy gives direction to general political and societal debates and has some important "reserve powers" in case of political instability. Under the constitution, the Monarch represents the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves in matters of international law, concludes treaties with foreign states on its behalf and accredits diplomats. Furthermore, all laws must be signed by the Monarch before they can come into effect; however, he can only veto a law that he believes to violate the constitution. It is a matter of political tradition - not legal restrictions - that the Monarch generally does not comment routinely on issues in the news, particularly when there is some controversy among the political parties. This distance from day-to-day politics and daily governmental issues allows the Monarchy to be a source of clarification, to influence public debate, to voice criticism, offer suggestions and make proposals. In order to exercise this power, he traditionally acts above party politics. The current Monarch is King Duarte Pio who ascended the throne 24 December 1976. Duties and functions The Monarch is involved in the formation of the Government and remains in close cooperation with it. Basically the Monarch is free to act on his own accord. However, according to the constitution, most orders and directives of the Monarch require the countersignature of the Prime Minister or the corresponding Minister. This rule places a check on the Monarch's power. Therefore, the Monarch also receives the Prime Minister regularly for talks on current policy issues. He also holds talks with individual Ministers and other senior officials at his own discretion. The Monarch's most prominent duties include: Appointment of the Government The Monarch proposes an individual as Prime Minister and then, provided he or she is subsequently elected by the Chamber of Deputies, appoints him or her to the office. However, the Chamber of Deputies is free to disregard the Monarch's proposal and elect another individual to the post, whom the Monarch is then obliged to appoint. The Monarch appoints and dismisses the remaining members of the Government "upon the proposal of the Prime Minister." The Monarch can dismiss the Prime Minister, but only in the event that the Chamber of Deputies passes a Constructive Vote of No Confidence. If this occurs, the Monarch must dismiss the Prime Minister and appoint the successor requested by the Chamber of Deputies. Other appointments The Monarch appoints judges, civil servants and military officers. All such appointments require the counter-signature of either the Prime Minister or the relevant cabinet minister. Dissolution of the Chamber of Deputies In the event that the Chamber of Deputies elects an individual for the office of Prime Minister by a plurality of votes, rather than a majority, the Monarch can, at his or her discretion, either appoint that individual as Prime Minister or dissolve the Chamber of Deputies, triggering a new election. In the event that a vote of confidence is defeated in the Chamber of Deputies, and the incumbent Prime Minister proposes a dissolution, the Monarch may, at his discretion, dissolve the body within 21 days. As of 2010, this power has only been applied three times in the history of the United Kingdom. In all three occurrences it is doubtful whether the motives for that dissolution were in accordance with the constitution's intentions. Each time the incumbent Prime Minister called for the vote of confidence with the stated intention of being defeated, in order to be able to call for new elections before the end of their regular term, as the Constitution does not give the Chamber of Deputies a right to dissolve itself. Promulgation of the law All laws passed by Parliament must, after counter-signature, be signed by the Monarch before they can come into effect. Upon signing, the Monarch has to check if the law was passed according to the order mandated by the constitution and/or if the content of the law is constitutional. If not, he or she has the right (and, some argue, the duty) to refuse to sign the law. This has happened rather rarely. Foreign relations The Monarch represents the United Kingdom in the World, holds foreign visits and receives foreign dignitaries. He or she also concludes treaties with foreign nations (which do not come into effect until affirmed by the Chamber of Peers), accredits United Kingdom diplomats and receives the letters of accreditation of foreign diplomats. Pardons and honours According to the Constitution the Monarch exercises the power to pardon. This means he "has the authority to revoke or commute penal or disciplinary sentences in individual cases". The Monarch cannot, however, issue an amnesty waiving or commuting sentences for a whole category of offences. That requires a law enacted by the Chamber of Deputies in conjunction with the Chamber of Peers. The Military The monarch is commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of the United Kingdom. However, the Constitution states, "Except for purposes of defense against an armed attack upon the Realm or United Kingdom forces, the King shall not use military force against any foreign state without the consent of the Cortes. Any measure which the King may take in pursuance of this provision shall forthwith be submitted to the Cortes and countersigned by the Prime Minister" The Prime Minister (Primeiro-Ministro) His Majesty's government consists of the Prime Minister and his or her cabinet ministers. The Constitution invests the Prime Minister with central executive authority. The Prime Minister's authority emanates from the provisions of the Constitution and from his or her status as leader of the party or coalition of parties holding a majority of seats in the Chamber of Deputies. Appointment Mechanism Every four years, after national elections and the seating of the newly elected Deputies, the Monarch nominates a Prime Minister candidate to that parliamentary body; the Prime Minister is elected by majority vote in the Chamber of Deputies. This vote is one of the few cases where a majority of all elected members of the Chamber of Deputies must be achieved, as opposed to a mere majority of those that are currently assembled, and is designed to ensure the establishment of a stable government. It has in the past occasionally forced ill or pregnant members to have to attend parliament when a party's majority was only slim. Unlike regular voting by the Chamber of Deputies, the vote to elect the Prime Minister is by secret ballot. This is intended to ensure that the Prime Minister's majority does not depend on members of his or her party only outwardly showing support. If the nominee of the Monarch is not elected, the Chamber of Deputies may elect its own nominee within fourteen days. If no-one is elected within this period, the Chamber of Deputies will attempt an election. If the person with the highest number of votes has a majority, the Monarch must appoint him or her. If the person with the highest number of votes does not have a majority, the Monarch may either appoint them or call new elections for the Chamber of Deputies. As all Prime Ministers have been elected in the first vote as yet neither of these constitutional provisions has been applied. Votes of No-Confidence The Constitution limits parliament's control over the Prime Minister and the cabinet. Unlike most parliamentary legislatures, the Chamber of Deputies cannot remove the Prime Minister simply with a vote of no-confidence. The Constitution allows only for a "constructive vote of no-confidence." That is, the Chamber of Deputies can remove a Prime Minister only when it simultaneously agrees on a successor. This legislative mechanism ensures both an orderly transfer of power and an initial parliamentary majority in support of the new Prime Minister. The constructive no-confidence vote makes it harder to remove a Prime Minister because opponents of the Prime Minister not only must disagree with his or her governing but also must agree on a replacement. The Prime Minister also may make use of a second type of no-confidence vote to garner legislative support in the Chamber of Deputies. The Prime Minister can append a simple no-confidence provision to any government legislative proposal. If the Chamber of Deputies rejects the proposal, the Prime Minister may request that the Monarch dissolve parliament and call new elections. Although not commonly used, this procedure enables the Prime Minister to gauge support in the Chamber of Deputies for the government and to increase pressure on the Chamber of Deputies to vote in favor of legislation that the government considers as critical. Furthermore, governments have employed this simple no-confidence motion as a means of bringing about early Chamber of Deputies elections. Role of the Prime Minister and Cabinet The first Prime Minister, Pedro de Sousa Holstein, set many precedents that continue today. He arrogated nearly all major decisions to himself, and established the Prime Ministership as the clear focus of power in the United Kingdom. He often treated his ministers as mere extensions of his authority rather than colleagues, his successors have tended to be less domineering. The Prime Minister is the only member of the government elected by the Chamber of Deputies. The other cabinet ministers are chosen by the Prime Minister himself or herself, although they are formally appointed by the Monarch on the Prime Minister's proposal. The Prime Minister also sets the number of cabinet ministers and dictates their specific duties. The Constitution sets forth three principles that define how the executive branch functions. * First, the "Prime Minister principle" makes the Prime Minister responsible for all government policies. Any formal policy guidelines issued by the Prime Minister are legally binding directives that cabinet ministers must implement. Cabinet ministers are expected to introduce specific policies at the ministerial level that reflect the Prime Minister's broader guidelines. * Second, the "principle of ministerial autonomy" entrusts each minister with the freedom to supervise departmental operations and prepare legislative proposals without cabinet interference so long as the minister's policies are consistent with the Prime Minister's larger guidelines. * Third, the "cabinet principle" calls for disagreements between federal ministers over jurisdictional or budgetary matters to be settled by the cabinet. Parliament (Cortes) The Cortes are a bicameral Parliament composed of a lower house (Câmara dos Deputados, chamber of deputies) and an upper house (Câmara dos Pares, Chamber of Peers). The principal function of the Cortes is to pass laws, or legislation. All Laws (bills) and money bills (a bill proposing an expenditure or levying a tax), must be introduced in the Chamber of Deputies. In practice, the great majority of bills are introduced by ministers. Bills introduced by other Members are called private members' bills. All bills must be passed by both Chambers to become law. The Chamber of Peers may amend normal bills but not money bills, it may only pass or reject them. The chamber of Peers also approves treaties and introduces amendments to the Constitution. The enacting formula for Acts of the Cortes is simply "The Cortes of the United Kingdom enacts:". The Cortes performs other functions besides legislation. It can discuss urgency motions or matters of public importance: these provide a forum for debates on public policy matters. Peers and Deputies can move motions of censure against the government or against individual ministers. On most sitting days in both Chambers there is a session called Question Time at which Peers and Deputies address questions to the Prime Minister and other ministers. Peers and Deputies can also present petitions from their constituents. Both Chambers have an extensive system of committees in which draft bills are debated, evidence is taken and public servants are questioned. There are also joint committees, composed of members from both Chambers. Câmara dos Deputados (Chamber of Deputies) Câmara dos Deputados has 448 members. Members are directly elected at least once in every five years by the people of the United Kingdom under a system of proportional representation known as the single transferable vote. Membership of the Chamber of Deputies is open to citizens who are 21 or older. A member of the Chamber of Deputies is known as a Deputy. The Câmara dos Deputados electorate consists of United Kingdom citizens over 18 years of age who are registered to vote in the United Kingdom. Under the Constitution a general election for Câmara dos Deputados must occur once in every seven years, but a five-year limit is currently specified by statute. Currently every constituency elects between three and five Deputies. The constitution specifies that no constituency may return fewer than three Deputies but does not specify any upper limit to constituency magnitude. However, statute (Section 6 of the Electoral Act 1997) places a maximum size of five members on constituencies. The constitution requires that constituency boundaries be reviewed at least once in every twelve years, so that boundaries may be redrawn to accommodate changes in population. Boundary changes are currently drafted by an independent commission, and its recommendations are usually followed. Malapportionment is forbidden by the constitution. Under the Constitution, the commission is required to refer to the most recent census when considering boundary changes. Câmara dos Pares (Chamber of Peers) Câmara dos Pares has 100 members. Members are directly elected from districts within each of the three constituent nations of the United Kingdom and the Overseas Department of Asia. Each “nation” receives twenty five seats. Elections are done by single transferable vote. Membership of the Chamber of Peers is open to citizens who are 21 or older. A member of the Chamber of Peers is known as a Peer. The Câmara dos Pares electorate consists of United Kingdom citizens over 18 years of age who are registered to vote in the United Kingdom. Under the Constitution a general election for Câmara dos Pares must occur must occur not later than 90 days after the Câmara dos Deputados has been disolved. Each “nation” is free to draw it's own districts for the Chamber of Peers. Each district, however, must be of roughly equal population and each district must return only a single member to the chamber. Political Parties Military The armed forces of the United Kingdom—officially, His Majesty's Armed Forces—consist of three professional service branches: the Royal Navy and Royal Marines (forming the Naval Service), the Portuguese Army and the Royal Air Force. The forces are managed by the Ministry of Defense and controlled by the Defense Council, chaired by the Minister of Defense. The Commander-in-Chief is the Portuguese monarch, Duarte III, to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance. The Armed Forces are charged with protecting the UK and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. The manpower of His Majesty's Armed Forces mainly relies on conscription. All males who have reached the age of eighteen and are found fit have to serve one year military service, followed by a seven-year reserve obligation. Both males and females at the age of seventeen are eligible for voluntary service. Conscientious objection is legally acceptable and those who claim this right are obliged to serve an institutionalized one year civilian service instead. Since 1998, women volunteers have been allowed to become professional soldiers. The military budget of the United Kingdom in 2015 was more than $2 trillion, At 4.7% of GDP, the rate was one of the largest in the world. Personnel As of 31 December 2014, 5,117,900 people were on active duty in the armed forces, with an additional 3,272,100 people in the reserve components. The U.K. military is one of the world's largest and has troops deployed around the globe. As in most militaries, members of the U.K. military hold a rank, either that of officer, warrant, or enlisted, to determine seniority and eligibility for promotion. Those who have served are known as veterans. Rank names may be different between services, but they are matched to each other by their corresponding paygrade. Officers who hold the same rank or paygrade are distinguished by their date of rank to determine seniority, while officers who serve in certain positions of office of importance set by law, outrank all other officers in active duty of the same rank and paygrade, regardless of their date of rank. Navy and Marines Category:United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil, and the Algarves